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Human trafficking

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Human trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, harbouring, or receipt of people

for the purposes of slavery, forced labor (including bonded labor or debt bondage), and

servitude. It is the fastest growing criminal industry in the world^[1], with the total annual

revenue for trafficking in persons estimated to be between $5 billion and $9 billion.^[2] The

Council of Europe states that “[p]eople trafficking has reached epidemic proportions over

the past decade, with a global annual market of about $42.5 billion.”^[3][4] Trafficking

victims typically are recruited using coercion, deception, fraud, the abuse of power, or

outright abduction. Threats, violence, and economic leverage such as debt bondage can

often make a victim consent to exploitation.

Exploitation includes forcing people into prostitution or other forms of sexual exploitation,

forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the

removal of organs. For children, exploitation may also include forced prostitution, illicit

international adoption, trafficking for early marriage, or recruitment as child soldiers,

beggars, for sports (such as child camel jockeys or football players), or for religious cults.^[5]

Overview

Human trafficking differs from people smuggling. In the latter, people voluntarily request

smuggler’s service for fees and there may be no deception involved in the (illegal)

agreement. On arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is usually free. On the other

hand, the trafficking victim is enslaved, or the terms of their debt bondage are highly

exploitative. The trafficker takes away the basic human rights of the victim. ^{[6] [7]}

Victims are sometimes tricked and lured by false promises or physically forced.^[8] Some

traffickers use coercive and manipulative tactics including deception, intimidation, feigned

love, isolation, threat and use of physical force, debt bondage, other abuse, or even

force-feeding with drugs to control their victims.^[9] People who are seeking entry to other

countries may be picked up by traffickers, and misled into thinking that they will be free after

being smuggled across the border. In some cases, they are captured through slave raiding,

although this is increasingly rare.

Trafficking is a fairly lucrative industry. In some areas, like Russia, Eastern Europe, Hong Kong,

Japan, and Colombia, trafficking is controlled by large criminal organizations. ^[10] However,

the majority of trafficking is done by networks of smaller groups that each specialize in a

certain area, like recruitment, transportation, advertising, or retail. This is very profitable

because little startup capital is needed, and prosecution is relatively rare.^[11]

Trafficked people are usually the most vulnerable and powerless minorities in a region. They

often come from the poorer areas where opportunities are limited, they often are ethnic

minorities, and they often are displaced persons such as runaways or refugees (though they

may come from any social background, class or race).

Women are particularly at risk from sex trafficking. Criminals exploit lack of opportunities,

promise good jobs or opportunities for study, and then force the victims to become

prostitutes. Through agents and brokers who arrange the travel and job placements, women

are escorted to their destinations and delivered to the employers. Upon reaching their

destinations, some women learn that they have been deceived about the nature of the work

they will do; most have been lied to about the financial arrangements and conditions of their

employment; and find themselves in coercive or abusive situations from which escape is

both difficult or dangerous.

Trafficking of children often involves exploitation of the parents’ extreme poverty. The latter

may sell children to traffickers in order to pay off debts or gain income or they may be

deceived concerning the prospects of training and a better life for their children. In West

Africa, trafficked children have often lost one or both parents to the African AIDS crisis.^[12].

Thousands of male (and sometimes female) children have also been forced to be child soldiers.

The adoption process, legal and illegal, results in cases of trafficking of babies and pregnant

women between the West and the developing world. In David M. Smolin’s papers on child

trafficking and adoption scandals between India and the United States,^[13][14] he cites there

are systemic vulnerabilities in the intercountry adoption system that makes adoption

scandals predictable.

Thousands of children from Asia, Africa, and South America are sold into the global sex

trade every year. Often they are kidnapped or orphaned, and sometimes they are actually sold

Men are also at risk of being trafficked for unskilled work predominantly involving forcedlabor which globally generates $31bn according to the International Labour Organization ^[16].

Other forms of trafficking include forced marriage, and domestic servitude.

Extent

Due to the illegal nature of trafficking and differences in methodology, the exact extent is

unknown. According to United States State Department data, an “estimated 600,000 to

820,000 men, women, and children [are] trafficked across international borders each year,

approximately 70 percent are women and girls and up to 50 percent are minors. The data

also illustrates that the majority of transnational victims are trafficked into commercial

sexual exploitation.”^[17] However, they go on to say that “the alarming enslavement of people

for purposes of labor exploitation, often in their own countries, is a form of human

trafficking that can be hard to track from afar.” Thus the figures for persons trafficked for

labor exploitation are likely to be greatly underestimated.

According to the National Human Rights Center in Berkeley, California, there are currently

about 10,000 forced laborers in the U.S., around one-third of of whom are domestic

servants and some portion of whom are children. The Associated Press reports, based on

interviews in California and in Egypt, that trafficking of children for domestic labor in the

U.S. is an extension of an illegal but common practice in Africa. Families in remote villages

send their daughters to work in cities for extra money and the opportunity to escape a

dead-end life. Some girls work for free on the understanding that they will at least be better

fed in the home of their employer. This custom has led to the spread of trafficking, as

well-to-do Africans accustomed to employing children immigrate to the U.S.^[18]

Research conducted by University of California at Berkeley on behalf of the anti-trafficking

organisation Free the Slaves found that less than half of people in slavery in the United States,

about 46%, are forced into prostitution. Domestic servitude claims 27%, agriculture 10%,

and other occupations 17%.^[19][20]

Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, the impoverished former Eastern bloc countries such as

Albania, Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine have been identified as

major trafficking source countries for women and children.^[21][22] Young women and girls

are often lured to wealthier countries by the promises of money and work and then reduced

to sexual slavery.^[23] It is estimated that 2/3 of women trafficked for prostitution worldwide

annually come from Eastern Europe, three-quarters have never worked as prostitutes

before.^[24][25] The major destinations are Western Europe (Germany, Italy, Netherlands,

Spain, UK, Greece), the Middle East (Turkey, Israel, the United Arab Emirates), Asia, Russia

and the United States.^[26][27] An estimated 500,000 women from Central and Eastern Europe

are working in prostitution in the EU alone.^[28]

An estimated 14,000 people are trafficked into the United States each year, although again

because trafficking is illegal, accurate statistics are difficult.^[29] According to the Massachusetts

based Trafficking Victims Outreach and Services Network (project of the nonprofit

MataHari: Eye of the Day) in Massachusetts alone, there were 55 documented cases of human

trafficking in 2005 and the first half of 2006 in Massachusetts.^[30] In 2004, the Royal Canadian

Mounted Police (RCMP) estimated that 600-800 persons are trafficked into Canada annually

and that additional 1,500-2,200 persons are trafficked through Canada into the United

States.^[31] In Canada, foreign trafficking for prostitution is estimated to be worth $400

million annually.^[32]

In the United Kingdom, the Home Office has stated that 71 women were trafficked into

prostitution in 1998. They also suggest that the actual figure could be up to 1,420 women

trafficked into the UK during the same period.^[33] However, the figures are problematic as

the definition used in the UK to identify cases of sex trafficking – derived from the Sexual

Offences Act 2003 – does not require that victims have been coerced or misled. Thus, any

individual who moves to the UK for the purposes of sex work can be regarded as having been

trafficked – even if they did so with their knowledge and consent. The Home Office do not

appear to be keeping records of the number of people trafficked into the UK for purposes other

than sexual exploitation.

In Russia, many women have been trafficked overseas for the purpose of sexual exploitation,

Russian women are in prostitution in over 50 countries.^[34][35] Annually, thousands of Russian

women end up as prostitutes in Israel, China, Japan or South Korea.^[36] Russia is also a

significant destination and transit country for persons trafficked for sexual and labor

exploitation from regional and neighboring countries into Russia, and on to the

Gulf states^[37], Europe, Asia, and North America.

In poverty-stricken Moldova, where the unemployment rate for women ranges as high as 68%

and one-third of the workforce live and work abroad, experts estimate that since the collapse

of the Soviet Union between 200,000 and 400,000 women have been sold into prostitution

abroad—perhaps up to 10% of the female population.^[38][39] In Ukraine, a survey conducted by

the NGO La Strada Ukraine in 2001–2003, based on a sample of 106 women being trafficked

out of Ukraine found that 3% were under 18, and the U.S. State Department reported in 2004

that incidents of minors being trafficked was increasing. It is estimated that half a million

Ukrainian women were trafficked abroad since 1991 (80% of all unemployed in Ukraine are

women).^[40][41]

The ILO estimates that 20 percent of the five million illegal immigrants in Russia are victims of

forced labor, which is a form of trafficking. However even citizens of Russian Federation have

become victims of human trafficking. They are typically kidnapped and sold by police to be

used for hard labor, being regularly drugged and chained like dogs to prevent them from

escaping. ^[42] There were reports of trafficking of children and of child sex tourism in

Russia. The Government of Russia has made some effort to combat trafficking but has

also been criticized for not complying with the minimum standards for the elimination of

trafficking.^{[43] [44]}

In Asia, Japan is the major destination country for trafficked women, especially from the

Philippines and Thailand. The US State Department has rated Japan as either a ‘Tier 2’ or a

‘Tier 2 Watchlist’ country every year since 2001 in its annual Trafficking in Persons reports.

Both these ratings implied that Japan was (to a greater or lesser extent) not fully compliant

with minimum standards for the elimination of human trafficking trade. There are currently

an estimated 300,000 women and children involved in the sex trade throughout

Southeast Asia.^[45] It is common that Thai women are lured to Japan and sold to

Yakuza-controlled brothels where they are forced to work off their price.^[46][47]By the late

1990s, UNICEF estimated that there are 60,000 child prostitutes in the Philippines, describing

Angeles City brothels as “notorious” for offering sex with children. UNICEF estimates many of

the 200 brothels in the notorious Angeles City offer children for sex. ^[48]

Many of the Iraqi women fleeing the Iraq War are turning to prostitution, while others are

trafficked abroad, to countries like Syria, Jordan, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey,

and Iran.^[49] In Syria alone, an estimated 50,000 Iraqi refugee girls and women, many of them

widows, are forced into prostitution.^[50] Cheap Iraqi prostitutes have helped to make Syria a

popular destination for sex tourists. The clients come from wealthier countries in the

Middle East – many are Saudi men.^[51] High prices are offered for virgins.^[52]

As many as 200,000 Nepali girls, many under 14, have been sold into the sex slavery in India.

Nepalese women and girls, especially virgins, are favored in India because of their light

skin.^[53][54][55]

In parts of Ghana, a family may be punished for an offense by having to turn over a virgin female

to serve as a sex slave within the offended family.^[56] In this instance, the woman does not gain

the title of “wife.” In parts of Ghana, Togo, and Benin, shrine slavery persists, despite being illegal

in Ghana since 1998. In this system of slavery of ritual servitude, sometimes called trokosi

(in Ghana) or voodoosi in Togo and Benin, young virgin girls are given as slaves in traditional

shrines and are used sexually by the priests in addition to providing free labor for the shrine.^[57]

Reporters have witnessed a rapid increase in prostitution in Cambodia, Bosnia, and Kosovo after

UN and, in the case of the latter two, NATO peacekeeping forces moved in. Peacekeeping forces

have been linked to trafficking and forced prostitution. Proponents of peacekeeping argue that

the actions of a few should not incriminate the many participants in the mission, yet NATO and

the UN have come under criticism for not taking the issue of forced prostitution linked to

peacekeeping missions seriously enough. ^{[58] [59][60][61]}

In the western world, Canada in particular has a major problem with modern-day sexual slavery.

In a 2006 report the Future Group, a Canadian humanitarian organization dedicated to

combatting human trafficking and the child sex trade, ranked eight industrialized nations and

gave Canada an F for its “abysmal” record treating victims. The report, titled “Falling Short of

the Mark: An International Study on the Treatment of Human Trafficking Victims”, concluded

that Canada “is an international embarrassment” when it comes to combating this form of

slavery.^[62]

The report’s principal author Benjamin Perrin wrote, “Canada has ignored calls for reform

and continues to re-traumatize trafficking victims, with few exceptions, by subjecting them to

routine deportation and fails to provide even basic support services.”

In the report, the only other country to do poorly was the United Kingdom, which received a D,

while the United States received a B+ and Australia, Norway, Sweden, Germany and Italy all

received grades of B or B-. The report criticizes former Liberal Party of Canada cabinet

ministers Irwin Cotler, Joe Volpe and Pierre Pettigrew for “passing the buck” on the issue.

Commenting on the report, the then Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, Monte Solberg

told Sun Media Corporation, “It’s very damning, and if there are obvious legislative or regulatory

fixes that need to be done, those have to become priorities, given especially that we’re talking

about very vulnerable people.”^[63]

Causes of trafficking

Some causes of trafficking include:

• lack of employment opportunities

• organized crime and presence of organized criminal gangs

• regional imbalances

• economic disparities

• social discrimination

• corruption in government

• political instability

• armed conflict

• uprooting of communities because of mega projects without proper Resttlement and

Rehabilitation packages.

• Profitability

• Growing deprivation and marginalization of the poor

• Insufficient penalties against traffickers

• Lax law enforcement on global sex tourism industry

• Sex trafficking in minors is fueled by demand (ie, profitability) from pedophiles.

• According to the UN a major factor that has allowed the growth of sexual trafficking is

• Driven by demand; demand is high for prostitutes and other forms of labor in host

Trafficking in people has been facilitated by porous borders and advanced communication

technologies, it has become increasingly transnational in scope and highly lucrative. Unlike drugs

or arms, people can be “sold” many times. The opening up of Asian markets, porous borders,

the end of the Soviet Union and the collapse of the former Yugoslavia have contributed to

this globalization.

Human trafficking and other vulnerability issues

Human trafficking is not a stand alone issue. It is closely related other issues that threaten

security well being of the victims. Victims are exposed to continuous threats of physical violence

by traffickers to ensure compliance. Many are held in bondage and beaten to suppress resistance.

Other threats include absolute poverty due to wage deprivation. They are unprotected by labor

laws,long working hours and lack of holiday is common. For example, 15 is the standard working

hours per day among Chinese victims in France. In Japan, Thai trafficking victims also complained

of breach of work contracts, non-payment of wages, mandatory night work and poor

accommodation [65].

Human trafficking and Sexual exploitation

There is no universally accepted definition of trafficking for sexual exploitation. The term

encompasses the organized movement of people, usually women, between countries and within

countries for sex work with the use of physical coercion, deception and bondage through forced

debt. However, the issue becomes contentious when the element of coercion is removed from the

definition to incorporate facilitating the willing involvement in prostitution. For example, In the

United Kingdom, The Sexual Offences Act, 2003 incorporated trafficking for sexual exploitation

but did not require those committing the offence to use coercion, deception or force, so that it

also includes any person who enters the UK to carry out sex work with consent as having being trafficked.^[65]

As Save the Children have said “The issue gets mired in controversy and confusion when

prostitutionitself is considered as a violation of the basic human rights of both adult women and

minors, and equal to sexual exploitation per se….. trafficking and prostitution become conflated

with each other…. On account of the historical conflation of trafficking and prostitution both

legally and in popular understanding, an overwhelming degree of effort and interventions of

anti-trafficking groups are concentrated on trafficking into prostitution” ^[66]

Sexual trafficking includes coercing a migrant into a sexual act as a condition of allowing or

arranging the migration. Sexual trafficking uses physical coercion, deception and bondage

incurred through forced debt. Trafficked women and children, for instance, are often promised

work in the domestic or service industry, but instead are usually taken to brothels where their

passports and other identification papers are confiscated. They may be beaten or locked up

and promised their freedom only after earning – through prostitution – their purchase price, as

well as their travel and visa costs ^[67][68]

The main motive of a woman (in some cases an underage girl) to accept an offer from a

trafficker is better financial opportunities for herself or her family. In many cases traffickers

initially offer ‘legitimate’ work or the promise of an opportunity to study. The main types of

work offered are in the catering and hotel industry, in bars and clubs, modeling contracts, or

au pair work. Traffickers sometimes use offers of marriage, threats, intimidation and kidnapping

as means of obtaining victims. In the majority of cases, the women end up in prostitution. Also

some (migrating) prostitutes become victims of human trafficking. Some women know they will

be working as prostitutes, but they have an inaccurate view of the circumstances and the

conditions of the work in their country of destination.^[69][70]

In Japan the prosperous entertainment market had created huge demand for commercial

sexual workers, and such demand is being met by trafficking women and children from the

Philippines, Colombia and Thailand. Women are forced into street prostitution, based

stripping and live sex acts.^[71] However, from information obtained from detainees or deportees

from Japan, about 80 percent of the women went there with the intention of working as

prostitutes ^[72]

The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, in the US and Canada, has also

been implicated in the trafficking of underage women across state and international boundaries

(US/Canada). In most cases, this is for the continuation of polygamous practices, in the form of

plural marriage.^[73][74]

Trafficking victims are also exposed to different psychological problems. They suffer social

alienation in the host and home countries. Stigmatization, social exclusion and intolerance make

reintegration into local communities difficult. The governments offer little assistance and social

services to trafficked victims upon their return. As the victims are also pushed into drug

trafficking,many of them face criminal sanctions.

Efforts to reduce human trafficking

Governments, international associations, and nongovernmental organizations have all tried to

end human trafficking with various degrees of success.

Government actions

Actions taken to combat human trafficking vary from government to government. Some have

introduced legislation specifically aimed at making human trafficking illegal. Governments can

also develop systems of co-operation between different nation’s law enforcement agencies

and with non-government organisations (NGOs). Many countries though have come under

criticism for inaction, or ineffective action. Criticisms include failure of governments in not

properly identifying and protecting trafficking victims, that immigration policies might

re-victimize trafficking victims, or insufficient action in helping prevent vulnerable people

becoming trafficking victims.

A particular criticism has been the reluctance of some countries to tackle trafficking for purposes

other than sex. In the United Kingdom, after intense pressure from Human Rights organisations,

trafficking for labour exploitation was made illegal in 2004 (trafficking for sexual exploitation

being criminalised many years previously). However, the 2004 law has been used very rarely and

by mid-2007 there had not been a single conviction under these provisions. ^[65]

Other actions governments could take is raise awareness. This can take on three forms. Firstly

in raising awareness amongst potential victims, in particular in countries where human

traffickersare active. Secondly, raising awareness amongst police, social welfare workers and

immigration officers. And in countries where prostitution is legal or semi-legal, raising

awareness amongst the clients of prostitution, to look out for signs of a human trafficking victim.

Laws against trafficking in the United States exist at the federal and state levels. Over half of the

states now criminalize human trafficking though the penalties are not as tough as the federal

laws. Related federal and state efforts focus on regulating the tourism industry to prevent the

facilitation of sex tourism and regulate international marriage brokers to ensure criminal

background checks and information on how to get help are given to the potential bride.

Raising awareness can take on different forms. One method is through the use of awareness

films ^[75] or through posters ^[76].

International law

In 2000 the United Nations adopted the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime,

also called the Palermo Convention, and two Palermo protocols there to:

• Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and
  

Children; and

• Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air.

All of these instruments contain elements of the current international law on trafficking in

human beings.

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings ^[77] was

adopted by the Council of Europe on 16 May 2005. The aim of the convention is to prevent

and combat the trafficking in human beings. The Convention entered into force on 1 February

2008. Of the 47 member states of the Council of Europe, so far 21 have signed the convention

and 17 have ratified it.^[78]

United States law

The United States federal government has taken a firm stance against human trafficking both

within its borders and beyond. Domestically, human trafficking is a federal crime under

Title 18 of the United States Code. Section 1584 makes it a crime to force a person to work

against his will, whether the compulsion is effected by use of force, threat of force, threat of

legal coercion or by “a climate of fear” (an environment wherein individuals believe they may be

harmed by leaving or refusing to work); Section 1581 similarly makes it illegal to force a person

to work through “debt servitude.” Human trafficking as it relates to involuntary servitude and

slavery is prohibited by the 13th Amendment. Federal laws on human trafficking are enforced

by the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, Criminal Section.

The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 allowed for greater statutory

maximum sentences for traffickers, provided resources for protection of and assistance for

victims of trafficking and created avenues for interagency cooperation. It also allows many

trafficking victims to remain in the United States and apply for permanent residency under a

T-1 Visa.^[79]. The act also attempted to encourage efforts to prevent human trafficking

internationally, by creating annual country reports on trafficking and tying

financial non-humanitarian assistance to foreign countries to real efforts in addressing

human trafficking.

The United States Department of State has a high-level official charged with combating

human trafficking, the Director of the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons

(“anti-trafficking czar“). The current director is Mark P. Lagon.^[80]

International NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have called on the

United States to improve its measures aimed at reducing trafficking.They recommend that the

United States more fully implement the

United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime Protocol to Prevent,

Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children and for immigration

officers to improve their awareness of trafficking and support the victims of trafficking. ^[81][82]

Several state governments have taken action to address human trafficking in their borders, either

through legislation or prevention activities. For example, Florida state law prohibits forced labor,

sex trafficking, and document servitude, and provides for mandatory law enforcement trainings

and victim services. A 2006 Connecticut law prohibits coerced work and makes trafficking a

violation of the Connecticut RICO Act.

Non-Governmental Organizations

Human rights organisations, including Amnesty International, Anti-Slavery International and

Human Rights Watch have campaigned against human trafficking. Several non-governmental

organizations (NGOs) and human rights organizations have been formed to combat human

trafficking. Some of these include:

Somaly Mam Foundation, founded in 2007 at the United Nations with the support of UNICEF,

UNIFEM, and IOM, the Somaly Mam Foundation is known for empowering victims of human

trafficking to become activists and agents of change. With the leadership of world renowned

Cambodian activist, Somaly Mam, the organization has garnered support from influential leaders

and celebrities such as Susan Sarandon, Daryl Hannah, Diane von Furstenberg, and Hillary

Clinton. The foundation also runs activities to support Rescue and Rehabilitation of victims in

Southeast Asia and works to increase global awareness to inspire action.^[83]

Polaris Project, founded in 2002, is an international anti-human trafficking organization with

offices in Washington DC, New Jersey, Colorado, and Japan. Polaris Project’s comprehensive

approach includes operating local and national human trafficking hotlines, conducting direct

outreach and victim identification, providing social services and housing to victims, advocating

for stronger state and national anti-trafficking legislation, and engaging community members

in grassroots efforts.^[84]

Tiny Stars. Using the Protect Act of 2003, Tiny Stars works closely with Federal Law

enforcement agencies to capture American child predators. Founded by Jake Collins in 1997,

Tiny Stars focuses on identifying, tracking, and capturing pedophiles who victimize girls

between the ages of 8-14 years old. To advance its mission, the organization has developed a

network of undercover agents, often former agents of the CIA, FBI, or Navy SEALS.^[85]

National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) is a program funded by the Department

of Health and Human Services. The NHTRC operates the National Human Trafficking Resource

Center Hotline 24-hours a day, 365 days a year.^[86]

Criticisms

Lack of accurate data and possible overestimation

Estimates of the number of people trafficked for sexual purposes is contentious – problems of

definition can be compounded by the willingness of victims to identify as being trafficked.^[87]

Distinguishing trafficking from voluntary migration is crucial because the ability of women to

purposefully and voluntarily migrate for work should be respected. In a 2003 report the

Thai sex worker support organization EMPOWER stated that many anti-trafficking groups fail to

see the difference between migrant sex workers and women forced to prostitute themselves

against their will. They documented a May 2003 “raid and rescue” operation on a brothel in

Chiang Mai that was carried out without the consent of the workers, resulting in numerous

human rights violations.^[88]

In her 2007 book Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labour Markets and the Rescue Industry,

sociologist Laura María Agustín has likewise criticized what she calls the “rescue industry”

for viewing most migrant sex workers as victims of trafficking that need to be saved, with

the effect of severely restricting international freedom of movement. Agustín does not deny

human trafficking or forced prostitution takes place, but rather that the ‘rescue industry’

overestimates figures.

Much criticism of the recent publicity around sex trafficking and the associated demands for

legal sanction against prostitutes or their customers, has come from sexual health / AIDS

organisations. Their principle concern being that such measures hinder efforts to prevent the

spread of HIV/AIDS. The epidemiologist Elizabeth Pisani, in her book The Wisdom of Whores:

Bureaucrats, Brothels, and the Business of AIDS, examines the phenomenon of sex trafficking

and its impact on HIV prevention in detail. She concludes that forced trafficking (as opposed

to voluntary involvement in sex work) is wildly over estimated.

Focus on “sex trafficking”

Whilst most mainstream human rights groups acknowledge all forms of trafficking, there is

growing criticism of the focus on trafficking for sexual exploitation at the expense of tackling

other forms such as domestic or agricultural trafficking. Ambassador Nancy Elly Raphael, the

first director of the U.S. Federal Trafficking in Persons Office, resigned over what she saw as

misrepresentation of the issue in order to provide support for the anti-prostitution lobby. She

says “It was so ideological. Prostitution, that’s what was driving the whole program. They

kept saying, ‘If you didn’t have prostitution, you wouldn’t have trafficking.’ I was happy to

leave.” ^[89]

In many countries, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom, the overwhelming

majority of interventions concentrate on sex trafficking. For example, on 8th July 2008,

Fiona Mactaggart MP, a prominent UK government spokesperson on the issue, admitted

that the UK government concentrated on disrupting sex trafficking. Quoting from

Sigma Huda, UN special rapporteur on trafficking in persons, she said “For the most part,

prostitution as actually practised in the world usually does satisfy the elements of trafficking…” ^[90]

Human trafficking in popular culture

Lilya 4-ever, a film based loosely on the real life of Dangoule Rasalaite, portrays a young

woman from the former Soviet Union who is deceived into being trafficked for exploitation

in Sweden. Human trafficking has also been portrayed in the Canadian/UK TV drama Sex Traffic.

Based on true events, Svetlana’s Journey by Michael Cory Davis depicts the trials of a 13-year-old

who loses her family and is sold to human traffickers by her adoptive family. Drugged, raped,

and forced to endure continuous abuse by her ‘clients’ and traffickers, she attempts to commit

suicide, but survives.

River of Innocents follows the 17-year-old Majlinda into the world of modern-day slavery,

where she struggles to hold on to her humanity and to help the stolen children around

her survive.^[91]

A Movie by Dzmitry Vasilyeu, about Human-trafficking in Eastern Europe

David Mamet’s 2004 film Spartan centres on the hunt for the daughter of a high ranking US

official who has been kidnapped by an international sex slavery ring.

Holly (2006) is a movie about a little girl, sold by her poor family and smuggled across

the border to Cambodia to work as a prostitute in a red light village. The Virgin Harvest is a

feature length documentary that was filmed at the same time.^[92]

The 2007 film Trade deals with human trafficking out of Mexico and a brother’s attempt to

rescue his kidnapped and trafficked young sister. It is based on Peter Landesman’s article about

sex slaves, which was featured as the cover story in the January 24, 2004 issue of New York

Times Magazine.

Human Trafficking (2005) (TV) by Christian Duguay stars Mira Sorvino, Donald Sutherland,

and Robert Carlyle. A sixteen-year-old girl from the Ukraine, a single mother from Russia,

an orphaned seventeen-year-old girl from Romania, and a twelve-year-old American tourist

become the victims of international sex slave traffickers. Sorvino and Sutherland are the

Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agents who struggle to save them.

Ghosts (2006 film) a documentary by independent film maker Nick Broomfield, follows the

story of the victims of the 2004 Morecambe Bay cockling disaster, in which smuggled immigrants

are forced in to hard labour.

The Jammed, an Australian film about human trafficking in Australia.^[93]

The new film The Sugar Babies (2007) by Amy Serrano is a documentary that highlights the

plight of Haitian victims of human trafficking in the Dominican Republic. It was produced by

Thor Halvorssen and funded by the Human Rights Foundation.

The European series Matroesjka’s deals with girls from ex-Soviet countries, who have been

deceived into sex slavery in Belgium.

The 2007 film Eastern Promises by David Cronenberg deals with a British midwife who unravels

a gang of Russian slavers when she seeks relatives to a baby of a sex slave named Tatiana.

The 2008 film Taken (film) by Pierre Morel, casting e.g. Liam Neeson, which is about girls who

are “trafficked” with the purpose of forcing them to prostitution. Link to IMDB for movie details

See also

• Child camel jockeyCoalition Against Trafficking in WomenComfort womanCommercial sexual exploitation of childrenGlobal Alliance Against Traffic in WomenJohn Bowe (author)La Strada ProgramRapeProstitutionProstitution of childrenSlaveryVisayan ForumRedlight Children CampaignEconomics of cocoaZach Hunter (teen abolitionist and author)Kevin Bales (author)

Notes

External links

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• Trafficking of women at the Open Directory Project
• Global Map of Human Trafficking

Articles and Resources

• Lost Daughters – An Ongoing Tragedy in Nepal, Women News Network – WNN, Dec 05, 2008
• National Human Trafficking Hotline – 1.888.3737.888 – Call the National Human Trafficking Resource Center Hotline 24 hours a day to report suspected human trafficking, for general information about human trafficking and to request training and technical assistance for both community groups and law enforcement in the issued surrounding human trafficking and modern day slavery.
• Polaris Project – The website is a sizable web-based resource of news articles and general information about human trafficking and modern day slavery in the Unites States.
• Polaris Project Action Center -This website, operated by the National Grassroots division of Polaris Project, serves as a resource for those unfamiliar with the issues of human trafficking in the United States with the purpose of informing and enabling people to take direct action to stop human trafficking in their communities
• In Modern Bondage: Sex Trafficking in the Americas (Second Revised Edition)
• Reducing the Impact of Bias, Power and Culture When Assisting Trafficked Persons: A Guide for Service Providers (Humanatis LLC 2007)
• Gaining the Trust of Your Victim Witness: A Guide for Law Enforcement Working Human Trafficking Cases (Humanatis LLC 2007)
• 50 Ways Local Government Officials Can Combat Human Trafficking in Their Communities (Humanatis LLC 2008)
• ‘Slavery in the 21st century – BBC
• ‘Asia’s sex trade is ’slavery’ – BBC
• Asia’s child sex victims ignored – BBC
• ‘Race to break camel slavery – Scotland on Sunday
• ‘Sex trade’s reliance on forced labour – BBC
• ‘A modern slave’s brutal odyssey – BBC
• ‘Child traffic victims ‘failed’- BBC
• Europe warned over trafficking – BBC
• ‘Balkans urged to curb trafficking – BBC
• 5,000 child sex slaves in UK – The Independent
• People trafficking: upholding rights and understanding vulnerabilities, Forced Migration Review, University of Oxford.
• People trafficking: upholding rights & understanding vulnerabilities – special issue of Forced Migration Review
• ‘Coalition Against Trafficking in Women Factbook
• International Organization for Migration Data and Research on Human Trafficking 2005

• ‘Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States: International and Domestic Trends – Coalition Against Trafficking in Women
• Fears of rising child sex trade – The Guardian
• Women and Children First: The Economics of Sex Trafficking. Lydersen, Kari. LiP Magazine, April 2002
• Human Trafficking, Fourth report of the Dutch National Rapporteur
• ‘Kidnapped children sold into slavery as camel racers’ – Guardian
• Amnesty International UK trafficking/forced prostitution
• Amnesty International USA – Human Trafficking
• Amnesty International – Council of Europe: Protect victims of people trafficking
• Gergana Danailova-Trainor, Patrick Belser, Globalization and the illicit market for human trafficking: an empirical analysis of supply and demand , ILO, 2006.

Government and international governmental organizations

• UN.GIFT – Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking
• Council of Europe – Slaves at the heart of Europe
• European Union: European Commission – Documentation Centre
• European Union: Eurojust and Human Trafficking
• U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report, 2005
• US State Department – Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
• US Department of Justice Human Trafficking Website
• US Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs
• Report on US government activities combatting trafficking in 2005
• United States Department of Homeland Security, Immigration and Customs Enforcement
• United States Federal Bureau of Investigation
• International Organization for Migration – Counter-Trafficking Programme
• United Nations – Trafficking in Human Beings (This site is an excellent source for international legislation and multi-media video files)
• Trafficking in Minors – United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute
• OSCE Special Representative on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings
• International Labour Organization – Human Trafficking in Asia reports
• Diplomacy Monitor – Human Trafficking
• The ILO Special Action Programme to combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL)
• U.S. Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report 2007
• US Department of Health and Human Services Campaign to Rescue and Restore Victims of Human Trafficking

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